Why are a microprocessor’s instructions referred to as an instruction set? Because the microprocessor architect selects the instruction complement with great care; it must be simple to execute complex operations as a sequence of simple events, each of which is described by one instruction from a well-designed instruction set.

Assembler often frighten users who are new to programming. Yet taken in isolation, the operations involved in the execution of a single instruction are usually simple to follow. Moreover, you need not attempt to understand all the instructions at once. As you study each of the programs in these notes you will learn about the speciffic instructions involved.

Microprocessor datasheet lists the instruction mnemonics. This provides a review of the processors capabilities, and will also be useful when you need a particular kind of operation but are either unsure of the specific mnemonics or not yet familiar with what instructions are available.

Microprocessor instructions are usually categorized into few groups depending on what the instruction does. For example, the ARM microprocessor instruction set can be divided into six broad classes of instruction.

• Data Movement
• Logical and Bit Manipulation
• Arithmetic
• Flow Control
• Memory Access
• System Control / Privileged

Microprocessor Arithmetic Operations

Much of the arithmetic in some microprocessor applications consists of multiple-word binary or decimal manipulations. The processor provides for decimal addition and subtraction, but does not provide for decimal multiplication or division, you must create these operations with sequences of instruction.

Most processors provide for both signed and unsigned binary arithmetic. Signed numbers are described in two’s complement form. This means that the operations of addition and subtraction are the same whether the numbers are signed or unsigned.

Multiple-precision binary arithmetic requires simple repetitions of the basic instructions. The Carry flag transmits information between words. It is set when an addition results in a carry or a subtraction results in a borrow. Add with Carry and Subtract with Carry use this information from the previous arithmetic operation.

Decimal arithmetic is a standard enough task for microprocessors that most have special instructions for this purpose. These instructions may either perform decimal operations directly or correct the results of binary operations to the proper decimal form. Decimal arithmetic is essential in such applications as point-of-sale terminals, check processors, order entry systems, and banking terminals.

You can implement decimal multiplication and division as series of additions and subtractions, respectively. Extra memory must be reserved for results, since a multiplication produces a result twice as long as the operands. A division contracts the length of the result. Multiplications and divisions are time-consuming when done in software because of the repeated operations that are necessary.

Instruction set of any microprocessor or microcontroller is a precisely chosen list of instructions that can be used to write ANY program. It is up to the software engineer (or compiler) to select the right algorithm and order of instructions.

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The task of every compiler is to translate high-level language source code to machine code that will run on target processor. This may be achieved through assembly language file or by linking object files, the ultimate goal of every compiler is to generate code for the target processor. In principle this is a simple task. Every high level statement can be translated in a series of target instructions. However, without some optimizations this code would be very inefficient. Unoptimized code still works, but it is slower and the files are bigger.

The nature of high-level statements is to operate with variables. Loading and storing of variables can happen in any order. But transfers from and to memory are slower comparing to transfers between registers. And if some value is stored to memory location and immediately after it is needed again in a different calculation, then it doesn’t make sense to load it again since it was already present in some register. With proper register loading we can save a lot of redundant loads and stores. There are many optimization algorithms to make the code as efficient as possible. In fact, the compiler optimization is a science. There are many books written on this subject.

Most optimization algorithms are based on control and data flow analysis. There are many optimization approaches: to reduce jumps, to remove dead, redundant or common code, to remove redundant loads and stores, to use registers efficiently, to replace slow instructions with faster ones, to replace specific arithmetic calculations with short instructions, etc. Each optimization is based on some code or data properties. Some of the common optimizations include: constant folding, integer arithmetic optimizations, dead code elimination, branch elimination, code-block reordering, loop-invariant code motion, loop inversion, induction variable elimination, Instruction selection, instruction combining, register allocation, common sub-expression elimination, peephole optimizations, etc.

The basic rule of every optimization is that the original functionality of the program should not be changed. All optimization algorithms are based on the assumption that the program under analysis is the only one who changes memory locations. In reality interrupts or hardware ports can break this rule. Therefore proper actions must be taken to prevent optimizations on memory locations which might be modified outside the code we are trying to optimize. An additional programming technique that complicates optimizations is using pointers. But with proper analysis it is possible to apply safe optimizations on most parts of the code.

You can optimize the code for speed or for code size. In each case the program runs faster or occupies less memory. The later is extremely important in embedded programming where the memory of microcontrollers is limited. Compiler optimizations are an important part of every compiler. Unoptimized code is a waste of memory and time on any target system.

The author is a big Pascal programming language fan and has created a Free Pascal compiler for 8051 microcontrollers which uses Turbo Pascal syntax and generates optimized code. If you are interested in practical compiler construction you can examine the Turbo Pascal internals. This is Turbo Pascal compiler written in Delphi which can be used as an excellent book on compiler design.

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Turbo Pascal was probably the most widely used Pascal compiler of all times. Borland released it in early 1980s and at that time it was available on the CP/M and PC platform. It featured fast compiler, integrated development environment and a very affordable price. Its syntax, known also as Object Pascal, has become standard and the concept of units is still used in all modern implementations. Until recently Pascal programming language was taught in many schools. For many people it was the first step into computer programming. It is a language that is easy to write and easy to read so you need very few comments to understand what the program does.

Turbo Pascal in 1990s evolved into Delphi. This is a rapid application development tool for Windows. It still uses Object Pascal with many additional features. However, because of popularity in early years, there are many projects that were developed with Borland DOS compilers. If you would like to compile such project you would need the original compiler, most likely version 7.0 which was the last released DOS version. Unfortunately, this version is no longer available. Borland has some time ago released old versions of compilers free of charge: 1.0, 3.02 and 5.5. The last version 7.0 is not yet available.

If you would like to compile the old Pascal code you can either try to find the original compiler from one of the illegal sources or you can use the open-source Free Pascal in compatible mode. There is also a third option. You can use the TPC32 command line compiler which is available as part of the demo package of the TPC32 source files and can be downloaded for free. This is not some limited version, it is a fully functional compiler compatible with TPC.EXE command line compiler. It is called demo because the full version includes complete source files which are not available for free.

TPC32 is a successor of the TPC16, a compatible compiler written in Turbo Pascal 7. It is compatible with the original Borland compiler in all aspects. Compiles the same source files and generates binary compatible unit and executable files. TPC32 is still the same compiler, the sources were slightly modified to be compatible with Delphi 7 which doesn’t use the old segment-offset memory model. TPC32 still generates 16-bit x86 code. Source code of both compilers is available for purchase. You can use this source code to understand the internal data structures and algorithms of the famous Borland product or to make your own compiler. Both compilers are also available in demo versions which include fully functional compiled executable files. Because TPC16 is a DOS application it has some memory limitations. The TPC32 is a Win32 application and uses flat memory model with very few limitations. Both compilers can be used to compile the old projects created with the original Borland tools.

Pascal programming language is now rarely used in schools, but for some programmers it is still very popular and many old projects are still maintained. TPC32 compiler might be a solution for those who need a cheap and legal solution to compile the old Pascal sources.

Turbo Pascal can be used also to program embedded devices. For example, the Turbo51 - free Pascal compiler for 8051 microcontrollers uses Turbo Pascal syntax with some extensions to support specific 8051 features.

If you need a free compatible solution to compile the old Pascal projects you can download a demo version of the TPC32, Turbo Pascal compiler written in Delphi, which contains a fully functional command line compiler. You can also get the TPC32 source code. It can be used for your own project or as a great book on compiler design and implementation.

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What APIs / libraries used for developing 3D applications?

The 3D development is complex and requires the right tools to be successful.

If you want to make the 3D pure redevelop your own algorithms, to touch down and be close to the hardware, then it will direct you to a 3D API or DirectX or OpenGL (see OpenGL or DirectX? And Where to Find More specific to my API (DirectX, OpenGL, …)?. These APIs are quite difficult to grasp for a beginner, and support only the display. In addition, you will need to redevelop all the algorithms commonly used for manage or optimize rendering.

If instead your goal is to create 3D applications as quickly as possible, you concentrate on other aspects of your game, or simply if you prefer to use proven tools, efficient and you are chewing a lot of work, then there are Many engines and free open-source. There are two types of engines with the development 3D: the 3D engine (running the display of the 3D world), and the physics engine (manage the interactions between objects, collisions, …). Here are the most famous:

3D Engines

* In OGRE (Object-oriented Graphics Rendering Engine): multi-API, multi-platform, open-source, C + + engine is probably the best free 3D engines at present. It is used in many projects, and constantly evolving.

* In Irrlicht: multi-API, multi-platform, multi-language and also open-source, Irrlicht is also widely used and very easy to use.

For a more complete list of other 3D engines available, see Where can I find a list of existing 3D engines?.

Physics engine

* In ODE (Open Dynamic Engine) physics engine C / C + + open-source, to simulate collisions, vehicles, creatures, and more generally any type of object in a virtual environment. With the image of the OGRE 3D engine, ODE is certainly the best physics engine of free time.

Where can I find a list of existing 3D engines?

There are hundreds of 3D engines available on the net for all kinds of languages, with all sorts of features and any kind of license.

To find, one of the best sites is DevMaster - 3D engines database: it lists hundreds of engines, has a search function, can be searched by category, see the top 10, …

DirectX or OpenGL?

Despite all their dissimilarities, DirectX and OpenGL have areas of application that overlap sufficiently so that we can hesitate between the two in choosing a development platform.

In practice, when one program in Windows, the choices are often subjective, each platform has its advantages and disadvantages.

Some arguments are still to remember:

* OpenGL is multiplatform, DirectX does it only under Windows environment.
* It is against impossible to program in OpenGL XBoX. But the conversion of calls to OpenGL graphics Direct3D is probably the easiest part of the conversion of a PC game console.
* DirectX offers many multimedia library then is limited to the OpenGL graphics rendering.
* DirectX components offers via its COM object-oriented interface, while remaining pure OpenGL C.
* Historically and until recently the OpenGL support is left to the discretion of manufacturers of graphics cards, which causes a great disparity in the support of new features and overall stability of the platform OpenGL under Windows. Using OpenGL is rather to advise developers who can ensure that their users will have a decent OpenGL implementation on a machine.

for more related articles and info about 3d game programming go to our game making forum.

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Introduction

The C language for game programming is a very popular, many commercial titles such as Quake were written in this language. The reason C has been so widely used is because of its power. The language will allow you to do anything, from optimising your system level rendering code to easily crashing the system.

Id Software’s Quake
If you are just starting out programming and thinking of C as a game programming language, be warned, it is not an easy language learn. You will spend countless time wondering what is wrong with your command syntax and then trying to figure out the cryptic error messages the compiler will give you. Take a class or get a good book.
Though if you feel that you are ready to move on from something like Visual Basic or Delphi then C is an excellent choice. If you a serious about game programming you ‘will’ want to learn this language. The increased things you can do in you game projects will be a big benefit and if you should want a career in game programming or other parts of the computing industry this language is the way to go.
Another advantange of the C language is the API’s (Application Programmers Interface) that you can use. For graphics you have the 2 most popular: DirectX and OpenGL. For sound there is a great one available called FMod.
After you have a firm grasp on this language learning C++ is just one more step. It uses the same syntax but it adds structure by using ‘classes’. C++ allows you to write object orientated programs that allow you to more easily manage large projects.

Getting started
To get started you will need to get a compiler. There are quite a few around, a commercial one is best but there are some freeware ones too. DOS is dead technology, I wouldn’t recommend bothering too much with it, so make sure you can compile Windows code when picking a compiler.
The freeware ones have the disadvantage of lack of support and generally don’t have a nice GUI so commands will have to be typed in a DOS prompt. It’s tough to find books and examples that will work without a lot of tinkering.
My recommendation is Microsoft’s Visual C++. It is used throughout the industry and has every feature you can think of. It is a C++ compiler, but is, of course, able to compile straight C code. Many books use this for their examples and so do most webpages.
Taking classes is a good way to learn the language, but there are also many books available. You can also try learning a few things off web page examples. My copy of Visual C++ came with an e-book on learning the language.

Graphics
As for adding graphics to your games, C game programming has the pick of the crop with DirectX and OpenGL. There are many arguments on which is better, but they both perform relatively the same. OpenGL has a simpler syntax and I feel it is easier to learn. The good thing is once you have learnt one the other isn’t too hard to pick up.
Check out the projects and games on the main page, they were all done with OpenGL.
You could optionally use something like Allegro, while it is good and is more than just a graphics library, it hasn’t caught on to the extent of the others.

Sound
When adding sound to your C programs DirectX doesn’t make things very easy. There is a library called FMOD that I have found too easy to use and is available on most platforms including consoles. It is free to use unless you are going to make money off your games. You only need to make an initialization in your program, then call a function to play your sound file.

Source Code
Want some source code examples of some C game programming in action?

* I wrote a Pacman using C with OpenGL for graphics, DirectX for input and FMOD for sound. You can check it out here.
* ID Software’s Quake source code can be downloaded here.
* Ravensoft’s Hexen and Heretic here.

The Future
C/C++ is the industry standard for game programming at the moment. The only real looking competitor is Java but that still looks like a long shot. Looks like C game programming will be in action for a while yet.
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Geo targeting (in internet marketing) and geo marketing are the methods of determining the geolocation (the physical location) of a website visitor with geolocation software, and delivering different content to that visitor based on his or her location, such as country, region/state, city, metro code/zip code, organization, Internet Protocol (IP) address, ISP or other criteria.
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Internet marketing ties together creative and technical aspects of the Internet, including design, development, advertising, and sale.
Internet marketing also refers to the placement of media along different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine marketing (SEM), search engine optimization (SEO), banner ads on specific websites, e-mail marketing, and Web 2.0 strategies. In 2008 The New York Times working with comScore published an initial estimate to quantify the user data collected by large Internet-based companies. Counting four types of interactions with company websites in addition to the hits from advertisements served from advertising networks, the authors found the potential for collecting data upward of 2,500 times on average per user per month
One-to-one approach
The targeted user is typically browsing the Internet alone, so the marketing messages can reach them personally. This approach is used in search marketing, where the advertisements are based on search engine keywords entered by the user.
And now with the advent of Web 2.0 tools, many users can interconnect as “peers.”
[edit] Appeal to specific interests
Internet marketing and geo marketing places an emphasis on marketing that appeals to a specific behaviour or interest, rather than reaching out to a broadly-defined demographic. “On- and Off-line” marketers typically segment their markets according to age group, gender, geography, and other general factors. Marketers have the luxury of targeting by activity and geolocation. For example, a kayak company can post advertisements on kayaking and canoing websites with the full knowledge that the audience has a related interest.
Internet marketing differs from magazine advertisements, where the goal is to appeal to the projected demographic of the periodical. Because the advertiser has knowledge of the target audience—people who engage in certain activities (e.g., uploading pictures, contributing to blogs)— the company does not rely on the expectation that a certain group of people will be interested in its new product or service.
[edit] Geo targeting
Geo targeting (in internet marketing) and geo marketing are the methods of determining the geolocation (the physical location) of a website visitor with geolocation software, and delivering different content to that visitor based on his or her location, such as country, region/state, city, metro code/zip code, organization, Internet Protocol (IP) address, ISP or other criteria.
[edit] Different content by choice
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Internet marketing, also referred to as i-marketing, web marketing, online marketing, or eMarketing, is the marketing of products or services over the Internet.
The Internet has brought many unique benefits to marketing, one of which being lower costs for the distribution of information and media to a global audience. The interactive nature of Internet marketing, both in terms of providing instant response and eliciting responses, is a unique quality of the medium. Internet marketing is sometimes considered to have a broader scope because it not only refers to digital media such as the Internet, e-mail, and wireless media; however, Internet marketing also includes management of digital customer data and electronic customer relationship management (ECRM) systems.
Internet marketing ties together creative and technical aspects of the Internet, including design, development, advertising, and sale.
Internet marketing also refers to the placement of media along different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine marketing (SEM), search engine optimization (SEO), banner ads on specific websites, e-mail marketing, and Web 2.0 strategies. In 2008 The New York Times working with comScore published an initial estimate to quantify the user data collected by large Internet-based companies. Counting four types of interactions with company websites in addition to the hits from advertisements served from advertising networks, the authors found the potential for collecting data upward of 2,500 times on average per user per month
One-to-one approach
The targeted user is typically browsing the Internet alone, so the marketing messages can reach them personally. This approach is used in search marketing, where the advertisements are based on search engine keywords entered by the user.
And now with the advent of Web 2.0 tools, many users can interconnect as “peers.”
[edit] Appeal to specific interests
Internet marketing and geo marketing places an emphasis on marketing that appeals to a specific behaviour or interest, rather than reaching out to a broadly-defined demographic. “On- and Off-line” marketers typically segment their markets according to age group, gender, geography, and other general factors. Marketers have the luxury of targeting by activity and geolocation. For example, a kayak company can post advertisements on kayaking and canoing websites with the full knowledge that the audience has a related interest.
Internet marketing differs from magazine advertisements, where the goal is to appeal to the projected demographic of the periodical. Because the advertiser has knowledge of the target audience—people who engage in certain activities (e.g., uploading pictures, contributing to blogs)— the company does not rely on the expectation that a certain group of people will be interested in its new product or service.
[edit] Geo targeting
Geo targeting (in internet marketing) and geo marketing are the methods of determining the geolocation (the physical location) of a website visitor with geolocation software, and delivering different content to that visitor based on his or her location, such as country, region/state, city, metro code/zip code, organization, Internet Protocol (IP) address, ISP or other criteria.
[edit] Different content by choice
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Internet marketing, also referred to as i-marketing, web marketing, online marketing, or eMarketing, is the marketing of products or services over the Internet.
The Internet has brought many unique benefits to marketing, one of which being lower costs for the distribution of information and media to a global audience. The interactive nature of Internet marketing, both in terms of providing instant response and eliciting responses, is a unique quality of the medium. Internet marketing is sometimes considered to have a broader scope because it not only refers to digital media such as the Internet, e-mail, and wireless media; however, Internet marketing also includes management of digital customer data and electronic customer relationship management (ECRM) systems.
Internet marketing ties together creative and technical aspects of the Internet, including design, development, advertising, and sale.
Internet marketing also refers to the placement of media along different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine marketing (SEM), search engine optimization (SEO), banner ads on specific websites, e-mail marketing, and Web 2.0 strategies. In 2008 The New York Times working with comScore published an initial estimate to quantify the user data collected by large Internet-based companies. Counting four types of interactions with company websites in addition to the hits from advertisements served from advertising networks, the authors found the potential for collecting data upward of 2,500 times on average per user per month
One-to-one approach
The targeted user is typically browsing the Internet alone, so the marketing messages can reach them personally. This approach is used in search marketing, where the advertisements are based on search engine keywords entered by the user.
And now with the advent of Web 2.0 tools, many users can interconnect as “peers.”
[edit] Appeal to specific interests
Internet marketing and geo marketing places an emphasis on marketing that appeals to a specific behaviour or interest, rather than reaching out to a broadly-defined demographic. “On- and Off-line” marketers typically segment their markets according to age group, gender, geography, and other general factors. Marketers have the luxury of targeting by activity and geolocation. For example, a kayak company can post advertisements on kayaking and canoing websites with the full knowledge that the audience has a related interest.
Internet marketing differs from magazine advertisements, where the goal is to appeal to the projected demographic of the periodical. Because the advertiser has knowledge of the target audience—people who engage in certain activities (e.g., uploading pictures, contributing to blogs)— the company does not rely on the expectation that a certain group of people will be interested in its new product or service.
[edit] Geo targeting
Geo targeting (in internet marketing) and geo marketing are the methods of determining the geolocation (the physical location) of a website visitor with geolocation software, and delivering different content to that visitor based on his or her location, such as country, region/state, city, metro code/zip code, organization, Internet Protocol (IP) address, ISP or other criteria.
[edit] Different content by choice
A typical example for different content by choice in geo targeting is the FedEx website at FedEx.com where users have the choice to select their country location first and are then presented with different site or article content depending on their selection.

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